By Atiq Raja
The distinction between needs and rights has long been a central theme in political philosophy, ethics, and social justice discussions. While both concepts are vital to the human experience, they operate on different levels of moral and societal obligations. Understanding how these two interact is critical in forming a balanced and just society. Scholars across different fields have provided insightful perspectives on this issue, offering various ways to define, prioritize, and respond to human needs and rights. Needs refer to the essential conditions required for human survival and well-being, such as food, shelter, healthcare, and education. They are often considered universal and objective, applicable to all individuals regardless of their location or status. Needs are foundational to human dignity and survival, and addressing them is often seen as a moral obligation.
Rights, on the other hand, are entitlements or privileges that individuals hold, often grounded in law or moral principles. Rights can be civil, political, social, or economic, and they generally entail duties on others to respect or fulfill them. For example, the right to free speech implies a duty on the state not to interfere with that speech. Rights are more subjective than needs, as they can vary according to legal systems, cultures, or historical contexts. Philosophers have debated whether needs can be translated into rights. The British philosopher Henry Shue argued that certain basic needs should indeed be seen as rights. In his influential work Basic Rights (1980), Shue contends that “subsistence” (food, shelter, healthcare) and “security” are so fundamental to human existence that they should be considered basic rights, obligating both individuals and governments to ensure they are met.
In contrast, John Rawls, in A Theory of Justice (1971), emphasizes rights as essential principles of justice in a society that respects fairness. However, Rawls distinguishes between “primary goods” that individuals need to pursue their conception of a good life and basic liberties like freedom of speech and conscience. He stops short of equating needs with rights but acknowledges the role of society in ensuring that people have the resources required to exercise their rights. One of the key challenges in addressing needs and rights is the potential for conflict between them. David Miller, in Principles of Social Justice (1999), discusses how rights and needs can sometimes be at odds in a resource-limited world. For instance, while one group may have a legal right to land or resources, another group may need those resources for survival. Balancing such competing claims requires both moral reasoning and practical solutions, often necessitating compromises.
The prioritization of rights over needs—or vice versa—can reflect societal values. In Western liberal democracies, individual rights often take precedence, sometimes leading to disparities in addressing collective needs. In contrast, some countries with more collectivist traditions, like those influenced by Amartya Sen’s work on human development, prioritize needs as a prerequisite for achieving rights. Sen, in Development as Freedom (1999), emphasizes that fulfilling basic needs is essential for individuals to realize their rights and freedoms. From a legal standpoint, the relationship between needs and rights is complex. Rights are often codified in constitutions, human rights charters, or legal statutes. International agreements like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) recognize both civil and political rights (e.g., freedom of expression) and economic, social, and cultural rights (e.g., the right to work, healthcare). The challenge, however, lies in the implementation and enforcement of these rights, especially the economic and social ones, which are often more aspirational than guaranteed in practice.
Martha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen have developed the Capabilities Approach, which provides a framework for understanding human rights in terms of what individuals are able to do and to be. This approach emphasizes the importance of creating societal conditions that enable people to meet their needs and exercise their rights. Nussbaum, in particular, has argued that rights should be evaluated not merely by legal entitlements but by their effectiveness in meeting fundamental human needs. The discourse on needs and rights is deeply intertwined with ideas of social justice. Michael Walzer, in Spheres of Justice (1983), explores how societies distribute goods (both material and symbolic) and how needs and rights can be reconciled within these distributions. Walzer suggests that different spheres of life—such as politics, economics, and education—have their own distinct principles of justice. In some spheres, rights may dominate (e.g., political rights), while in others, addressing needs may take precedence (e.g., healthcare).
Addressing needs without recognizing rights can lead to paternalism, where individuals’ dignity and agency are overlooked. Conversely, emphasizing rights without addressing underlying needs can result in formal equality without substantive equality, where people have legal rights but lack the resources or conditions necessary to exercise them fully. In contemporary discussions, needs and rights are increasingly seen as interdependent. The global COVID-19 pandemic, for example, has highlighted the importance of healthcare as both a need and a right. Governments worldwide have grappled with how to allocate limited resources in ways that respect both individuals’ needs and broader public health imperatives. In the context of climate change, the tension between the needs of vulnerable populations and the rights of industrialized nations to economic development has become more pronounced. The Paris Agreement (2015) reflects a global recognition of the need to balance the right to development with the urgent need to protect vulnerable communities from climate-related harms.
(The writer is a rights activist and CEO of AR Trainings and Consultancy, with degrees in Political Science and English Literature, can be reached at news@metro-morning.com)
